The field of organizational behavior management OBM) began with the application of behavioral science in business and industry in the late 1960s and early 1970s (see Dickinson, 2001, for full history). Since then the field has continued to expand and encompasses a wide range of topics at the individual performer, department, and system levels. Given the breadth of the field, it can be challenging to provide instruction and training that adequately covers both the practice of OBM and the scientific research that supports it. For college or university instruction in particular, it can be difficult to decide what content to review and at what level of detail within the constraints of a single semester. What is needed is a text that can represent the range of OBM, be readily adapted for instructor priorities and preferences, and is primarily research-based.
To date there have been several publications that can be utilized in undergraduate and graduate-level instruction. Articles from the Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM) are a primary source, though some OBM-related research can also be found in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA), Behavior Analysis in Practice (BAP), and Perspectives on Behavior Science (PoBS), among others. Textbooks, however, are limited. Many of the books published by OBMers target a less behavioral audience, typically those in industry (e.g., Braksick, 2000; Daniels & Daniels, 2007). Although we may assign students to read some of these books as supplements on a particular topic, these are subject specific, do not typically provide references to research supporting practice, and lack a broader overview of the field of OBM. Some of the exceptions to this that provide more research and/or breadth have historically included Industrial Behavior Modification: A Management Handbook (O’Brien, Dickinson, & Rosow, 1982), Handbook of Organizational Behavior Management (Frederiksen, 1982), and Organizational Behavior Modification (Luthans & Kreitner, 1975). In the last 20 years, additional texts include Organizational Change (Hayes, Austin, Houmanfar, & Clayton, 2001), Handbook of Organizational Performance: Behavior Analysis and Management (Johnson, Redmon, & Mawhinney, 2001), Performance Management (Daniels & Bailey, 2014), OBM Applied! A Practical Guide to Implementing Organizational Behavior Management (Rodriguez, Sundberg, & Biagi, 2016), and the book that I will be discussing in this review: Organizational Behavior Management: The Essentials.
Organizational Behavior Management: The Essentials is a book edited by Byron Wine and Joshua K. Pritchard, with chapters that have been contributed by various authors, including several by the editors themselves. The authors and the editors declined to accept any royalties for the book to keep the price as low as possible, which increases accessibility of this textbook, in particular for undergraduate and graduate students. For the purposes of this review, I will not be comparing and contrasting the previously mentioned texts to Organizational Behavior Management: The Essentials, but mention them so that instructors are aware that other texts do exist and that whole books or specific chapters may be utilized as replacements or supplemental readings. Indeed, there are several points throughout this book where chapters from several of these texts are cited.
As a faculty member at a public university in the United States, I have taught multiple sections of OBM at the undergraduate and master’s level. In the programs where I have instructed, these are stand-alone courses that are typically taken by students with some background in applied behavior analysis (ABA). For this review, I have solicited input from current students of mine at the undergraduate and graduate levels to provide both instructor and student perspectives on the utilization of this book at various levels of instruction.
The book is organized into three sections that comprise 16 chapters. Section I begins with the first chapter, authored by the editors of the book (Wine and Pritchard), and provides some context for the reader. It briefly outlines what ABA is and how OBM operates as a subdiscipline; however, it worth noting that the authors themselves later illustrate how OBM operates outside of the traditional ABA guidelines (e.g., behavioral systems analysis; see also discussion by Hyten, 2017). The authors explain that the goal of this text is to reflect the range of topics that fall under OBM and introduce students to the field as a whole. They then provide a brief history of OBM and delineate its two major orientations: performance management (PM) and behavioral systems analysis (BSA). They discuss how these orientations are reflected across the remaining sections of the book and in the rationale for how the book is organized. Section I introduces the areas of BSA, consumer behavior analysis (CBA), and behavior-based safety (BBS). In this section, OBM is also contrasted with related fields. The second section focuses primarily on PM fundamentals, including measurement, assessment, antecedents, and consequences, before also discussing motivation and creativity and process assessments. The final section covers practitioner issues including ethics, how to apply OBM in human service settings, consulting skills, and project management. Overall this initial chapter provides a short introduction to OBM and the contents of the book, but may be too brief given that nowhere else in the book does it define OBM, discuss its history (for further reading, see Dickinson, 2001), or provide a larger context, especially for students new to the field. Instructors will likely need to assign additional articles to provide that background.
Chapter 2, by Lori H. Ludwig and Timothy D. Ludwig, begins with a short discussion of entrepreneurship and how BSA can help address some of the challenges of establishing a new, adaptive business. The authors then provide a case study of an indoor bouldering gym and some of the issues the business faces currently and with their goal to expand. The key elements of BSA are then reviewed and how meta-contingencies are critical elements of a systems analysis is discussed. The authors of this chapter discuss a specific variation of BSA focused on adding value for the customer. They outline this process and use the bouldering gym case study to provide examples of each step in the process, including identifying the value gem (what makes the company special), verification of the value gem (soliciting customer feedback), differentiation from other businesses (competition), department functions and how to align these functions to the customer value, ensuring processes are designed to be efficient and effective, before finally discussing how this operates at the performer level and the involvement of management in antecedent and consequence delivery. Due to the applied nature of the chapter and emphasis on one meta-contingency (value for the customer) it provides a focus to BSA that is very approachable for individuals new to systems analysis. Sometimes BSA articles or books can be overwhelming because there are so many factors to consider and it is difficult to know where to start. One concern, however, in utilizing this chapter on its own is the lack of diagrams to illustrate the overall system, meta-contingencies, and other more complex steps (e.g., aligning department functions). Multiple illustrations would help with this or an instructor may consider assigning a journal article that outlines one of the more diagnostic approaches the authors mention in the summary section of the chapter.
Chapter 3, by Mark R. Dixon and Jordan Belisle, provides a historical context for current employee pay systems before briefly reviewing the time-based systems that are commonly utilized, including contracting, hourly, and yearly salaries. These pay systems are then contrasted with performance-based pay systems where pay is directly proportional to the employee’s performance level. Specific examples in education, government, healthcare, sales, and other industries are discussed. The authors’ overall conclusions are that although individual, competitive systems may be successful in some situations, cooperative and group-based ones are preferred. They provide the example of gainsharing and open-book management, which involves the organization sharing profit gains with employees, and incentivizes the employee to participate more in behaviors that increase profits. Because many of these systems have been designed and adopted outside of behavior analysis, the authors then describe a behavior analytic (i.e., functional) account of performance-based pay systems. This discussion includes the limitations of some research in this area, in particular as it is applied within actual organizational settings with competing social contingencies, other sources of reinforcement for work beyond financial, motivating operations, rule-governed behavior, and conclude with several recommendations for future research. Overall, the chapter provides a comprehensive and critical evaluation of performance-based pay. One area that was not clearly evaluated, however, was how the company’s profit may be directly linked to employee performance (i.e., profit-indexed performance pay; Abernathy, 2000), which is a critical issue for behavior analysts interested in utilizing pay as a reinforcer. Profit-only pay systems do not necessarily include this component, and piece-rate (as the authors mention) only reinforces individual, not group, improvements.
Chapter 4, by Angelica Grindle and Terry E. McSween, outlines a behavioral approach to safety in the workplace. The authors give a context for this approach by providing an initial overview of what is behavior based safety, or BBS, some data to support it, and its key elements (e.g., direct observation, feedback, goals, and recognition/reinforcement). The authors then make the point that although these elements appear simple, their implementation is complex, and the remainder of the chapter addresses the process for this implementation. The process includes a safety process assessment, assembling a steering committee, and the safety process itself (safety observations, training of staff, feedback and data review, planning recognition and celebration). They then discuss the importance of leadership in maintaining the process and ensuring that contingencies are not delivered that distort observational data. They conclude the chapter with specific practice suggestions. One of the strengths of this chapter is the provision of examples and specific recommendations for each step of the process. Overall, the chapter provides a broad overview of BBS while also emphasizing its most critical components.
Chapter 5, by Donald A. Hantula, focuses on consumer behavior analysis (CBA) and starts by introducing the importance of the consumer within the greater context of OBM in general and BSA in particular. The author does so by providing a short history of how CBA can be traced back to John Watson’s work, Ogden Lindsley’s (1962) initial research on advertising using CONPAAD (conjugately programmed analysis of advertising), and how CBA advanced the field by measuring consumer choices in situ rather than relying on attitude measures. The author then discusses BSA as it relates to CBA, emphasizing the role of the consumer, the importance of measuring consumer responses to an intervention, and how consumers may themselves be utilized to collect data. Following this, the two theoretically informed approaches to consumer behavior, the behavioral perspective model (BPM) and the behavioral ecology of consumption (BEC), are reviewed. According to the author, BPM and BEC are complementary and when combined provide a more complete account of CBA. How the matching law and behavioral economics research enhance CBA and form operant behavioral economics is then discussed. Finally, a summary is provided and call to conduct research with a systems-based approaches, more quantitative sophistication and theory, and a functional, rather than structural, perspective. Overall, this chapter explores a theoretical account of consumer and employee behavior from an economic perspective and provides a well-rounded review of these models while remaining approachable for individuals new to this area. One strength of this chapter are the number of references included in the sections where research is cited on BPM and BEC. This provides instructors with a list of potential readings to compliment the chapter if desired, in particular because this is a rapidly expanding area of OBM (see The Behavior Analyst, 40(2), for further examples).
Chapter 6, by Barbara R. Bucklin, aims to compare and contrast OBM with related disciplines, such as human performance technology/performance improvement (HPT/PI) and industrial-organizational psychology (I-O). The author begins by outlining the history of HPT/PI, including key figures, change in focus over time, and the professional organization most closely associated with it. Common and contrasting elements between today’s HPT and OBM are discussed, before the author provides information on journals, topics of interest, credentials, and educational opportunities. One notable contribution in this section is a table comparing and contrasting HPT/PI with OBM so the reader can clearly see similarities and differences, followed by a recommended reading list for further information on HPT/PI. The author then follows the same format to discuss I-O psychology, which primarily emphasizes personnel selection and placement, is theoretically eclectic, and very popular, with hundreds of universities offering Ph.D.s in I-O psychology. The author also provides a high-level review of human resources management (HRM), talent development, organizational behavior (OB), and organizational development (OD) by explaining their overlaps with OBM and where to find additional information. As a conclusion, the chapter ends with what differentiates OBM from these fields, in particular its strengths, and how the information provided in the chapter provides a basis for conversations with professionals in these related fields and ideas for other research areas. Overall, this chapter is very beneficial for students unfamiliar with related disciplines but will also be seeking jobs in the field and will need to know what job titles overlap with their skill sets and who their competition and potential collaborators in the field are likely to be.
Section II of the book begins with a chapter on behavioral pinpointing and measurement. The authors (Florence D. DiGennaro Reed, Matthew D. Novak, Tyler G. Erath, Denys Brand, and Amy J. Henley) start the chapter with a rationale for why pinpointing and measurement are so important in organizational settings. They then provide definitions and examples of pinpointing and measurement. Notable in this section are the precise recommendations about what to pinpoint (e.g., behavior versus result) and examples of measurement tied to specific research studies. Barriers to measurement are also addressed, mainly resistance from management or employees and lack of time or resources. The authors also broadly outline key characteristics of an effective measurement system, but as they themselves point out, it is not a thorough description and it would be necessary for someone designing such a system to review additional sources. Useful suggestions for data collection are then outlined before providing an applied example at the conclusion of the chapter. The applied example integrates all the material provided in the chapter into a real-life application. This accomplishes the goal of presenting the content in a second way, thus enhancing learning, but also eliminates the need for a course instructor to develop or find examples elsewhere.
Chapter 8, by David A. Wilder and Ansley C. Hodges, focuses on assessment and initially describes how assessment is employed within OBM. The authors then provide examples of assessment in BBS and systems analysis before giving a history of assessment in ABA and application in OBM. They address the fact that historically formal assessment was absent from ABA (pre-1980s), but although the authors state that OBM has taken longer to utilize similar assessments and the number of studies evaluating them remains small, it is important to note that several OBM assessments date back to the 1970s (e.g., Mager and Pipe, 1970). The authors then discuss several formats of informant assessment utilized in PM, including Mager and Pipe’s model, Gilbert’s tool, and the performance diagnostic checklist (PDC) and its variations, the PDC-Human Services and the PDC-Safety, and the PIC/NIC analysis. The authors emphasize that these assessments are inexpensive and efficient, but more research on their reliability and validity is needed. One strength of this chapter is the brief review of research that is available on each assessment, which provides a reading list for instructors interested in assigning additional articles for students. Descriptive and experimental analyses are also briefly covered and reasons for their limited use in organizational settings discussed. The authors conclude the chapter with suggested research areas in assessment. Overall, the chapter provides a nice overview of assessment. BBS, systems analysis, and process assessment are covered elsewhere in the book, and so are only briefly reviewed here.
Chapter 9, by Byron Wine, discusses the role of antecedents in organizational settings. The author begins by describing antecedents in general and how they operate within an operant contingency. The author then provides a nice discussion of the role of antecedents in the workplace, how manipulating them is common in the workplace, but how research and conceptual understanding of how they operate on behavior is limited. The author does not cover training within the chapter in order to provide room to discuss other antecedent interventions, but given recent research in the field (see Behavior Analysis in Practice, vols. 11 and 12) more discussion may be warranted. The author then provides a summary of several antecedent interventions, including task clarification/checklists, job aids/prompts, and goal setting, including available research. The goal setting section, however, would benefit from references supporting assertions regarding how to best set goals. The chapter concludes with a brief review of some additional antecedent interventions, before concluding with a very important discussion about overreliance on antecedent interventions without including consequence-based interventions in organizational settings. Overall, the chapter provides a summary of several important antecedent strategies, but additional references and discussion of training and goal setting would be recommended. In addition, although the discriminative versus motivative functions of these interventions are not easily determined, it does warrant additional discussion. Motivating operations are briefly discussed elsewhere (see discussion of Chapter 11) but an instructor may want to assign additional articles that cover motivating operations and rule-governed behavior because they play such a critical role in human behavior in the workplace.
Chapter 10, by Sigurdur O. Sigurdsson, Brandon M. Ring, and Adam S. Warman, covers consequences and begins with a well-written introduction to issues regarding reinforcement that are unique to organizational settings, including that contrived reinforcers in organizational settings are typically rule-governed analogs to reinforcement. They only briefly review schedules of reinforcement, but given the lack of research in this area in an OBM context, this seems appropriate. The chapter then covers feedback, incentives, and praise as common interventions. The authors note that these interventions may not exclusively function as consequences, and are not mutually exclusive. The authors review and provide important recommendations based on the literature regarding feedback content, source, immediacy, frequency, medium, and privacy. Following this is a discussion of the role of incentives, how to identify potential reinforcers through preference assessments, and some general recommendations. Like Chapter 9, this section may benefit from the inclusion of some additional research citations and discussion, in particular on feedback timing, ideal monetary amounts for incentives, and preference assessments. The authors conclude the chapter by providing an excellent discussion of praise, in particular with respect to concerns regarding insincerity and habituation. One of the strengths of this chapter is the recognition that it is difficult to classify interventions strictly as consequences, similar to antecedent interventions, which again points to the necessity of either a chapter specifically addressing this issue or assigning additional reading on the topic. The authors also assert that most OBM interventions are to increase responding, and so they focus exclusively on reinforcement, but punishment (penalty) and negative reinforcement are also prevalent in the workplace and if not included in the chapter, the authors might recommend additional readings.
Chapter 11, written by Douglas A. Johnson and Merrilyn Akpapuna, takes a slightly different focus on motivation by discussing it in the context of innovation and creativity. The authors assert that innovation and creativity are a growing business necessity, but that OBM has not positioned itself well to address these because OBM is either misunderstood by other disciplines (sticks and carrots only) or our analysis of motivation is superficial at best. Hence the reason for this chapter is to address motivation, creativity, and innovation from a behavioral paradigm. They begin by providing a succinct and well-written clarification of terms and definitions related to motivation such as “rewards/reinforcers” and “intrinsic/extrinsic motivation” before exploring why the business community demonizes external reinforcement and why OBMers should be concerned about this. They then review behavioral approaches to increase “motivation,” including a focus on motivating operations, which is a critical addition given it is only briefly discussed in other sections of the text. Finally, the authors address implications of all of this for generating novel and creative behavior. This particular chapter has some important elements but may also be a missed opportunity. A further discussion of motivating operations is necessary, but the digression into intrinsic/extrinsic motivation does not seem appropriate for the intended audience of this book given the dubious validity of the intrinsic/extrinsic motivation construct (Mawhinney, Dickinson, & Taylor, 1989; Skaggs, Dickinson, & O’Connor, 1991; and meta-analysis of intrinsic/extrinsic by Cameron & Pierce, 1994; Cameron, Banko, & Pierce, 2001). The chapter starts and ends with an interesting discussion regarding novelty and creativity in the workplace (see also Neuringer & Jensen, 2012), but many of the recommendations are hypothetical given the lack of research. Although the authors make a good case for why creativity and innovation are important in industry, given the current lack of behavioral application in the area, this chapter could have been utilized for a more extensive discussion of motivating operations, rule-governed behavior, or other OBM areas, such as leadership.
The final chapter (Chapter 12) in Section II is written by Heather M. McGee and begins by explaining how process analysis fits into OBM. The author then defines what a process is and how processes are classified (i.e., single or cross-functional and core, support, or management). OBM research on process improvement is then briefly discussed. Finally, the bulk of the chapter focuses on the steps involved in a process analysis, which vary slightly (based on authorship) but in general include and are covered in the current chapter as scoping the process and determining the results to be affected, analysis of the process, designing changes, developing materials for the changes, implementation, and evaluation. In this chapter, more emphasis is placed on the initial steps of analysis and design, including providing specific step-by-step recommendations regarding identifying steps of the current “IS” process, mapping it, and analyzing disconnects before designing the “SHOULD” process. This chapter is well-written and provides step-by-step instructions, with the addition of a practical example that is essential for following what can be a complex process. This chapter lends itself well to being paired with additional empirical research articles or with a student project, whether at the undergraduate or graduate level.
Section III begins with a chapter on ethics written by the editors (Wine and Pritchard). They start the chapter by explaining that their goal is to provide a “practical framework from which to make ethical decisions in OBM endeavors” (p. 320). They explicitly state that they are not interested in providing guidelines, because these are difficult to generalize to novel situations, but rather discuss the underlying ethical principles that should guide behavior in organizational settings. As such, they only briefly discuss ethical guidelines that apply to OBMers from the BACB or the International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI). Instead, they focus on several book chapters and articles that provide guidelines for the ethical behavior of a consultant, OBMer, and manager. Included in this is a discussion of job satisfaction from a behavioral perspective (Hantula, 2015). The authors argue that for an intervention to be ethical, it must not only meet the needs of management (i.e., increase performance) but do so in a way that enhances the job satisfaction of the employees (i.e., reducing aversive control and promoting healthy and safety of employees through positive reinforcement). Finally, they synthesize these varying guidelines into eight questions that, in their words, guide OBM consultants in making decisions that would balance cost, benefit, and responsibility across management, workers, and consumers, which would thereby benefit society. However, the authors recognize that additional more formalized guidelines and model are needed which are beyond the scope of this chapter. I agree with the authors on their assessment and that more discussion and writing on ethics in OBM is needed. The current chapter provides a reasonable introduction to the topic and a practical starting point for this conversation however and, like the previous chapter on process analysis, can be combined with exercises or additional readings, in particular at the graduate level.
Chapter 14, by James K. Luiselli, reviews how OBM can be applied in human service programs (HSP), and provides examples of research and special considerations for this setting. Some of the more important sections of the chapter include acknowledging how performance expectations may be different/unique in HSPs and what challenges that may include, such as meeting regulatory guidelines. They then discuss how assessment is adapted to HSP (e.g., PDC-Human Services) and several performance improvement areas, including training, performance monitoring (which combines multiple interventions), intervention/treatment integrity, and safety. It is worth noting that some of this section significantly overlaps with other content in the book, but some of that is to be expected as it does involve the application of, for example, the PDC in this setting. This also allows the chapter to stand alone without the necessity of reading prior chapters. The author then provides some final conclusions about assembling performance improvement teams, creating goals/objectives based on assessment and practical measurement systems, providing incentives/reinforcement, assessing social validity, and staying current with the research literature and maintaining a scientist-practitioner orientation. Although the chapter doesn’t cover all considerations when working within HSP settings, such as addressing high levels of employee burnout and absenteeism in this setting, it does provide a discussion of some of the key considerations and cites additional resources that instructors can assign if they would like to provide more instruction on the content.
In Chapter 15, Amy Durgin discusses project management. The chapter begins by describing project management’s recent growth as a field and certification (project management professional or PMP). The chapter then reviews what a project is, what project success looks like, in particular from the viewpoint of various stakeholders, common factors that lead to failure, and then walks through the steps of managing a project in greater detail, including initiating, planning, monitoring and controlling, and project closing. One notable strength of this section is the level of detail regarding what questions to ask at each step, who is involved, and what the deliverables should look like. Finally, the chapter reviews what OBMers can contribute, in particular regarding managing antecedents and consequences for the team but also for themselves. Although unmentioned, this could also include goal setting, managing MOs, measurement, and leadership behavior. This discussion is important because project management is not unique to behavior analysis. As per the author, this chapter addresses an important area of OBM, which is project work, as opposed to operational or ongoing work of the organization. Like the chapters on systems analysis and process mapping, it is written in an approachable and practical manner, though it may benefit from an example carried through the chapter (as seen in the systems and process mapping chapters).
Chapter 16 concludes the book by discussing consultation in OBM, and is written by Nicole Gravina, Allison H. King, and Ansley C. Hodges. It begins by discussing what consulting is and the collaborative role that OBM consultants typically take. The authors then discuss key issues related to consulting, including building rapport, contacts and networking, sales and securing work, consulting rates, conducting assessments, and planning and delivering work. Notable in this section is a table and discussion on how to utilize multiple sources of information in assessment, which complements without repeating the content from Chapter 8. They then review some consulting examples, like the consultant workshop model and BBS, and the common elements that these consultant models include (e.g., attempts to institutionalize the intervention), as well as the coaching role that many OBM consultants assume, in particular with leaders. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of an OBM approach to consulting. This provides a nice conclusion to the book because presumably students have already read some of the other content so the discussion will be at their level. It also adds additional information in the way of examples and soft-skill considerations, and summarizes what it looks like to practice within the field in terms of what we do well and where there is still room for improvement.
The authors’ goal in editing Organizational Behavior Management: The Essentials was to represent the scope of OBM while maintaining a close tie to the research. Overall, I found that the book met these aims. Each of the chapters is well-written and the book is a well-organized introduction to OBM that provides a reasonable representation of the breadth of the field. This book will be an important resource as the number of behavior scientists or behavior analysts seeking instruction in OBM continues to grow. Although this review primarily evaluated the book in the context of its use in an undergraduate or graduate curriculum, the book might also be used for the education of staff, managers, or others within applied settings.
There are some issues the editors may want to address in a future edition or an individual using the text in a class (or for personal use) may wish to take into consideration. The first is the varying level of behavioral expertise assumed by the chapters. Some chapters are written at a very basic level of instruction and would be acceptable for an undergraduate student with no behavior analytic background, whereas others are more advanced and assume a general working knowledge of behavior science or behavior analysis. The book as a whole may be challenging for students new to behavior science or behavior analysis. The second consideration is somewhat related, in that some chapters are more research-focused, others are primarily practice-oriented, and some combine research with practical application. An instructor utilizing this text will likely need to supplement some chapters with research articles or with applied examples in order to provide both perspectives. Finally, the editors may consider adding supplemental materials to the book. Some of the chapters include figures, tables, and additional recommended readings. It would be beneficial to add more figures to some chapters, make additional recommended readings more explicit, and potentially include discussion questions, case studies, or other projects for extra practice. These supplemental materials could be published on a website.
Although there are some shortcomings, there are also several strengths that are worth noting. One of these is how the book addresses issues specifically related to the practice of OBM, such as ethics, consulting skills, and differentiating a career in OBM from related disciplines. A second strength is how many of the chapters end with suggested areas for research, which may inspire students and researchers to expand the scope of research in OBM. Finally, the chapters of the book are written such that they stand alone. In other words, although they reference content covered elsewhere in the text, for the most part it is not necessary to read those other chapters. This creates flexibility for an instructor to rearrange the order in which the chapters are covered in the course, for example, if they would like to address performance management before BSA. An instructor may also add chapters or other readings on topics not covered in the book or substitute a chapter for another article or chapter that better meets their needs. As the editors themselves indicate, it is not possible for one text to cover the full breadth of the field and in sufficient depth to be comprehensive. This text provides a good starting point from which individuals can read further on particular areas of interest, develop research questions, or use for an introductory class that lays the foundation for more advanced OBM coursework.
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